Layer 2 blockchain · settles to Polkadot
Acurast ticker ACU
Summary
Acurast Mainnet is a parachain built with Substrate. Collators take turns producing blocks in six-second Aura slots and hand each block to Polkadot relay-chain validators, who re-execute it, keep it available and finalize it. A read of Acurast's public RPC on 2026-09-29 showed 17 session collators: 4 fixed (invulnerable) collators and 13 candidates admitted through council preselection. Phones running the Acurast Processor app register on chain, prove their hardware with key attestations, report benchmarks and heartbeats, and run developers' deployments off chain; they neither produce nor validate blocks. ACU staking (Staked Compute) backs compute commitments and is slashed for compute shortfalls, not for block-production faults. 79172728293035
Design
- System
- Layer 2 blockchainAcurast Mainnet runs as Polkadot parachain 3396 and opened to the public on 20 January 2026. Acurast's collators build its blocks, and Polkadot relay-chain validators check, keep available and finalize them, so it is recorded as a layer two that settles to Polkadot, not as an independent layer one; Acurast's own token page calls it a Substrate-based Polkadot parachain. The phones that run workloads (processors) use the chain but do not produce or validate blocks. Acurast Canary runs separately as Kusama parachain 2239 with its own token, cACU.
- Settles to
- PolkadotAcurast Mainnet is Polkadot parachain 3396 (chain spec relay chain: polkadot). Relay-chain validators check each Acurast block, spread erasure-coded pieces of it, and finalize it with the relay chain, so Acurast's validity and finality depend on Polkadot's validator set and its dispute slashing. Acurast's own collators order transactions and can stall the chain but cannot finalize an invalid block on their own.
- Settlement family
- Its own design
- Scarce resource
- Other
- State model
- Accounts
- Finality
- Economic finality
- Who makes blocks
- The collator set is a council-set list of fixed collators plus up to 20 candidates. A candidate must first be added to a preselection list controlled by the council, which the node guide says the Acurast team handles, then register a session key and a candidacy bond. On 2026-09-29 the 13 candidates' bonds ranged from about 0.016 to 11 ACU and 7 of the 20 candidate places were free, so bond size did not decide who produced blocks. Aura rotates authorship among the session's collators, sessions last six hours, and collators share 5% of yearly inflation.
- Fork choice
- No open weight-based chain selection. Collators build on the parachain blocks that the relay chain has included, and a block is final once the relay-chain block that includes it passes approval checking and is finalized by a GRANDPA vote of over two-thirds of relay validators. Unincluded blocks can be dropped. Liveness also depends on collators reaching relay-chain nodes: in November 2025, Canary block production stopped for about 40 minutes and finality for about 2 hours when those nodes crashed.
Qualifications
- System class · Contested. Recorded as a layer two that settles to Polkadot: Acurast's own pages call Mainnet a Substrate-based Polkadot parachain, and its chain spec names the Polkadot relay chain and parachain ID 3396. Relay-chain validators check and finalize its blocks, but it posts no proofs or data to a contract on another chain, so readers who reserve the layer-two label for chains that do would call it a shared-security parachain instead.
- Settlement family · Partial. Recorded as other. Acurast's own terms: a Substrate-based Polkadot parachain whose runtime is a set of pallets (modules), including Acurast's own core pallet (deployment registration and device attestations) and its marketplace, compute, processor-manager, candidate-preselection and Hyperdrive bridge pallets; users submit extrinsics (signed calls) to these pallets, and there is no smart-contract pallet.
- Scarce resource · Partial. Recorded as other. Acurast's own terms: block producers are collators admitted through council preselection and rotated by Aura; at review 7 of 20 candidate places were free, so candidacy bonds did not weigh selection; block validity and finality come from Polkadot relay-chain validators, whose bonded stake can be slashed for backing an invalid block. ACU staking (Staked Compute) backs phone operators' compute commitments rather than block production.
- Finality · Partial. Recorded as economic finality because an Acurast block is final once Polkadot's GRANDPA vote finalizes the relay-chain block that includes it, backed by slashable relay-chain validators. Acurast's own collators are not slashed and add no finality of their own.
- Consensus description · Contested. Acurast's consensus page describes nominated proof of stake with nominators backing validators, and its staking material says staked ACU also counts for block-producer nominations. The deployed mainnet runtime selects collators through a council-controlled preselection list and small candidacy bonds, and no nomination step for collators was found in it.
- Slashing · Partial. Slashing exists only for compute commitments: a committer whose measured compute falls below what it committed loses a small share of its stake per epoch, shared by its delegators. No slashing of collators was found in the runtime.
- Compute verification · Partial. Deployments run on phones off chain. The chain checks device attestations and records heartbeats, benchmarks and reports, but it does not re-run the workloads, so results rest on hardware attestation and the operator's device rather than on consensus. Acurast's docs also describe a zero-knowledge runtime, which was not found in use.
- Bridge status · Partial. Acurast's July 2026 post-mortem says Hyperdrive sending and receiving were deactivated on 2026-07-20 as containment for a conversion replay bug. The release notes show that this change covered the Hyperdrive job-messaging pallet, which Mainnet runtime 15 then removed; the separate token bridge that moves ACU to and from Ethereum stayed in the runtime. A read of Acurast's public RPC on 2026-09-29 showed the token bridge's on-chain switch set to enabled, and the token docs still describe bridging to and from Ethereum; transfers through it were not tested.
- Throughput · Unknown. Acurast publishes cumulative transaction counts for its networks but no transactions-per-second figure for Mainnet, so no throughput claim is recorded.
Tradeoffs
- Emphasizes
- Security and Scalability Contested
- Gives up
- Open block production and open upgrade control. Collators join only after council preselection, fixed collators are set by the council or root, only council members can submit referenda on the single root governance track, and the council also appoints the Hyperdrive bridge oracles. Runtime upgrades 14 to 16 in 2026 were deployed before their source code was published.Acurast's consensus page says its nominated proof-of-stake design reaches security, scalability and decentralization, with a limited validator set serving scalability and an unlimited set of nominators serving security; reading that as all three corners at once is contested. The deployed runtime has no nomination step: council-preselected collators produce blocks, and block validity and finality rest on Polkadot's validators, which is where the security corner comes from. Acurast calls its phone network decentralized; that describes compute supply, not block production.
- Full node at home
- Unknown 71730Acurast publishes Docker images and a compose file for Mainnet and Canary nodes, with an archive database by default and the RPC port bound to the local machine, but states no CPU, memory or storage figures; it points to the node's own start-up benchmark warnings instead. A parachain node also follows the Polkadot relay chain, and the November 2025 Canary post-mortem shows collators depending on relay-chain nodes; that extra load was not sized. Running a node does not make someone a collator, which needs council preselection.
- Throughput claims
- No classified figure recorded
Scaling layers
No scaling layer recorded in this profile.
Capabilities
| Capability | How it is provided | Notes and sources |
|---|---|---|
| Account abstraction | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| Atomic swaps | Unknown | Not yet assessed under this row's current definition. The mainnet runtime has no smart-contract, exchange or hash-time-lock pallet; its multisig and proxy pallets are building blocks, and no mechanism for two parties to swap assets all-or-nothing was found. 27 |
| Authenticated data publication | Unknown | Not yet assessed under this row's current definition. A deployment records its script as an IPFS address (a content identifier) on chain, so processors fetch code they can check against it; this carries deployment code rather than data a publisher offers to readers, and retrieval depends on whoever hosts the file on IPFS. 34 |
| Light clients | Unknown | Not yet assessed under this row's current definition. Acurast's docs describe running a full archive node or using public RPC endpoints and document no light client; relay-chain finality proofs are building blocks, not a documented Acurast light client. 67 |
| Native staking or delegation | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| On-chain governance | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| Parallel execution | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| Payment or state channels | None found Earlier definition | No payment or state channel layer anchored to Acurast was found, and the mainnet runtime has no smart-contract pallet that could hold channel dispute logic. Its cross-chain message queues and the Hyperdrive IBC message pallet carry messages between chains, not payments between two parties. 27 |
| Programmable spending | Partial (layer not stated) Earlier definition | Built-in multisig accounts, proxies (including time-delayed proxies and proxies limited to certain calls) and vesting schedules give spend conditions beyond one key, but the mainnet runtime has no smart-contract pallet, so users cannot write their own spend conditions. Deployment scripts run on phones, not in the chain. 2731 |
| Protocol-verified messaging | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| Reversible transfers or recovery | Built into the protocolLimited scope | Time-delayed proxies in the mainnet runtime (the proxy pallet): a proxy added with a delay must announce a call and wait before it runs, and the account owner, or a proxy of the cancel type, can reject the announcement during that wait, so a delayed transfer can be cancelled. Scope is limited: recovery without a lost key exists only for phone (processor) accounts, whose paired manager can move the account's balance elsewhere without the phone's key (the processor manager's recover-funds call); ordinary accounts have no recovery pallet, and a completed transfer is not reversed. 273136 |
| Rollups | None found Earlier definition | No rollup settling to Acurast was found, and the runtime has no pallet that verifies another chain's proofs. The nearest feature is off-chain compute: processors run deployments and report results to the chain. Acurast's May 2025 blog announced an exploratory plan to run Linera microchains on Acurast phones; those would be Linera infrastructure and would not settle to Acurast. 42227 |
| Shielded transfers | Structured assessment pending | Not yet assessed for any chain. |
| Signed partial offers | Unknown | Not yet assessed under this row's current definition. The mainnet runtime has no exchange or smart-contract pallet. 27 |
Reading these values
- How this feature is provided
- Built into the protocol, core-team software or independent software says where a feature lives and who can change it. These are implementation layers, not quality: core-team software is not closer to the protocol than independent software.
- Structured assessment pending
- The shared review has not assessed this feature for any chain yet (Account abstraction, Native staking or delegation, On-chain governance, Parallel execution, Protocol-verified messaging and Shielded transfers). That does not mean it is absent, and a chain’s profile may already describe it.
- Unknown
- The review has not established this for this chain under the current definition; the note beside it says why. Unknown is not absent and not a low score. A feature reads “Not present” only when a source shows it is absent.
- Earlier definition
- Payment or state channels, Programmable spending and Rollups keep the earlier definition until the next fact-check. There, “Native” does not separate the protocol from core-team software, “Ecosystem software” does not say who publishes it, and “Partial” does not say which layer.
- Reading across rows
- The list of capabilities is incomplete. Do not read these rows as a chain leading or lagging overall.
Ecosystem & custody
| Product type | Status | Notes and sources |
|---|---|---|
| Automated market makers | None found | The mainnet runtime has no smart-contract, exchange or pool pallet, so no automated market maker runs on the Acurast chain. Applications on other chains that hold bridged ACU copies are not on the Acurast chain and were not reviewed; whether other parachains hold ACU over cross-chain messaging was not checked. 927 |
| Issuer-native stablecoins | None found | Neither Circle's USDC address list nor Tether's supported-protocol list includes Acurast, and the mainnet runtime has no pallet for issuing or holding other fungible tokens. 273738 |
| Algorithmic stablecoins | None found | No algorithmic stablecoin can run on Acurast itself: the mainnet runtime has no smart-contract pallet and no token-issuance pallet besides ACU's own balances. 27 |
| Bridges | First-partyAcurast Hyperdrive (Acurast Mainnet to Ethereum), LayerZero token copies on BNB Smart Chain, Base and Peaq (through Ethereum) | Acurast's own Hyperdrive bridge moves native ACU to Ethereum, where a 12-decimal ERC-20 copy is backed by ACU locked on Acurast, through the Acurast Hub. From Ethereum, LayerZero token contracts carry ACU copies to BNB Smart Chain, Base and Peaq. The July 2026 containment switched off Hyperdrive's job-messaging path, not this token bridge, whose on-chain switch read enabled in an RPC read on 2026-09-29; transfers were not tested. Risk: Hyperdrive accepts messages signed by oracles that the Acurast council or root adds and removes, and the runtime needs at least three valid oracle signatures per message, so bridged ACU depends on that oracle set and on council control; how many oracles are registered and who runs them was not verified. Acurast's own post-mortem found a replay path in the related token-conversion flow in July 2026. Copies on BNB Smart Chain, Base and Peaq also depend on LayerZero messaging, which was not reviewed. A bridged token is only as sound as the bridge that minted it. 919252832 |
| Block explorers | ThinAcurast Bot block explorer (acurastbot.com) | Acurast's networks page links the Acurast Bot explorer for Mainnet and Canary; Acurast's blog presents it as a community-built tool in development, and its operator was not identified. Its pages render in the browser only, so coverage was not reviewed. Listing is not a quality or completeness check, and explorer data is provider-indexed. 624 |
| Hardware wallets | Unknown | See custody rows: Acurast's Ledger page says a Ledger device can derive an Acurast address and sign messages but cannot yet sign Acurast transactions, and Trezor's Acurast page lists only ACU token copies on Base, Ethereum, BNB Smart Chain and Peaq, while its firmware has no Acurast signing. No hardware wallet that signs Acurast Mainnet transactions was found. 15163940 |
Hardware-wallet custody
| Device maker | Status | What users can and cannot do |
|---|---|---|
| Ledger | UnknownSame as native: Unknown | Can: Derive an Acurast address and sign messages with a Ledger device, per Acurast's Ledger page Cannot: Sign Acurast transactions such as transfers or staking with a Ledger device; Acurast's Ledger page says this is not yet supported and is being worked on Cannot: Find Acurast in Ledger's published Ledger Wallet currency list (@ledgerhq/cryptoassets 13.56.0)Ledger's own Acurast coin page returned not found at review, and no Ledger statement either way was found, so the row stays unknown under the custody rule. Acurast's page warns users not to send funds to a Ledger-derived Acurast address until transaction signing is supported. 1639 |
| Trezor | None foundSame as native: No | Cannot: Sign Acurast Mainnet transactions or control an Acurast account: Trezor's Acurast page lists only Base, Ethereum, BNB Smart Chain and Peaq as networks, and Trezor's firmware support data has no Acurast entry Cannot: Treat ACU token copies on those networks as custody on Acurast MainnetTrezor supports ACU only as token copies on Base, Ethereum, BNB Smart Chain and Peaq, which a Trezor can hold through Trezor Suite, MetaMask or Rabby; under the shared custody rule a token copy on another network does not count as custody on Acurast. Moving copies to Acurast Mainnet needs the Hyperdrive bridge and an account with a different signer. 91540 |
Public data
iKnow Blockchain has no public-data lookups for Acurast yet. This is a limit of the service, not a statement about the network.
| Lookup | Status | What it covers and its limits |
|---|---|---|
| Address or account | Not available yet | Public-data lookups for this chain are not built yet. |
| Tokens and assets | Not available yet | Public-data lookups for this chain are not built yet. |
| NFTs | Not available yet | Public-data lookups for this chain are not built yet. |
| Transactions | Not available yet | Public-data lookups for this chain are not built yet. |
Sourced developments
Developments: Reviewed Sep 29, 2026 Next review due Oct 9, 2026, 12:00 UTC.
Publication date · newest first
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Security fixes in Mainnet runtimes 14 to 16 were deployed before their source was published
After a community member disclosed three security issues (the two post-mortems date their reports to 20 July 2026), Acurast deployed Mainnet runtimes 14, 15 and 16 and then published their source as releases v0.26.3 to v0.26.5. The fixes stopped a double payout of delegation rewards, closed a replay path in the Canary-to-Mainnet conversion, deactivated and then removed the Hyperdrive job-messaging pallet, reduced the conversion pallet to unlocking only, upgraded the Polkadot SDK and hardened attestation checks. Acurast published post-mortems and says it has returned to publishing code before votes.
- Proposal:not itemized; Acurast says it deployed the fixes before publishing their source, reversing its usual order of publishing code before a governance vote, and names no referenda
- Implementation:shipped in acurast-substrate v0.26.3, v0.26.4 and v0.26.5 (Mainnet runtimes 14, 15 and 16)
- Release:source published 2026-09-02
- Activation:deployed on Mainnet before 2026-09-02 according to Acurast; exact enactment blocks not verified
Sources: Acurast blog — Acurast Security Protocol Upgrades (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — acurast-v0.26.3 release notes (Mainnet Runtime 14) (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — acurast-v0.26.4 release notes (Mainnet Runtime 15) (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — acurast-v0.26.5 release notes (Mainnet Runtime 16) (external site) · Acurast Docs — Post mortem: Acurast Compute, double claiming of staking rewards (external site) · Acurast Docs — Post mortem: Acurast Token Conversion, replay of conversion messages (external site)
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Cargo Linux containers went live on Acurast Canary
Acurast launched Cargo, which runs Linux containers in any language on attested Android phones, on the Canary network, with admission limited to phones that pass hardware key attestation with a locked bootloader. Release v0.25.5 (8 May 2026) added the shell job module Cargo needs to both Canary runtime 57 and Mainnet runtime 13, and Acurast's Cargo quickstart now describes Mainnet deployments.
- Implementation:live on Canary; runtime support shipped for Mainnet in v0.25.5
- Release:announced 2026-04-24
- Activation:active on Canary; Mainnet availability described in Acurast's quickstart but not independently verified
Sources: Acurast blog — Codename: Cargo Now Live on Canary (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — acurast-v0.25.5 release notes (Canary Runtime 57, Mainnet Runtime 13) (external site) · Acurast Docs — Quickstart - Cargo (external site)
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Dynamic deployment pricing replaced processor-set prices after an on-chain vote
Acurast replaced prices set by processor managers with prices derived from each processor's share of benchmark rewards, times a governance-set multiplier and above a governance-set minimum. Matchers are now paid only when a processor acknowledges an assignment. The change shipped in Mainnet runtime 12 (release v0.25.1, 20 March 2026), and Acurast says it passed an on-chain vote and is live.
- Proposal:approved by an on-chain vote according to Acurast; the referendum number was not found
- Implementation:shipped in acurast-substrate v0.25.1 (Mainnet runtime 12)
- Release:released 2026-03-20
- Activation:live on Mainnet according to Acurast's 2026-03-24 post
Sources: Acurast blog — Dynamic Pricing: A New Era for Compute Value (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — acurast-v0.25.1 release notes (Mainnet Runtime 12) (external site) · Acurast Docs — Deployment Pricing (external site)
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Acurast Mainnet opened to the public as Polkadot parachain 3396
Acurast announced that Mainnet was live, moving production use from the Canary network to Mainnet. Mainnet runs as Polkadot parachain 3396 with ACU as its native token. Acurast set a 90-day window for Canary users to migrate funds, while processors could move at any time; migrated ACU arrived locked under a time-based conversion.
- Implementation:Mainnet runtime running as Polkadot parachain 3396
- Release:public launch announced 2026-01-20
- Activation:live; Canary-to-Mainnet migration of balances is closed and the conversion pallet only allows unlocking
Sources: Acurast blog — Acurast Mainnet & TGE Are Live (external site) · Acurast Docs — Instances (Devnet, Canary and Mainnet) (external site) · Acurast Docs — Acurast Token (ACU): chains and token contracts (external site) · Acurast (GitHub) — Acurast Mainnet chain spec (acurast-mainnet-parachain-3396-raw.json) (external site) · Acurast Docs — From Canary To Mainnet: Overview (external site) · Acurast Docs — Post mortem: Acurast Token Conversion, replay of conversion messages (external site)
Topics your AI can explain
Your AI can explain these topics for Acurast through the connection, with sources.
Known gaps
What this profile's review did not establish:
- The collator count, candidacy bonds and the token bridge's switch come from two reads of Acurast's public WebSocket RPC on 2026-09-29; that endpoint is not an HTTPS page, so the reads are recorded in the endpoint notes rather than as cited sources.
- Who operates the 4 fixed collators and 13 candidates, and who sits on the Acurast council that controls preselection, fixed collators, bridge oracles and referendum submission, was not verified.
- Acurast's consensus page and staking material describe nominations of block producers with staked ACU; no such step was found in the deployed runtime, and whether one is planned was not established.
- Acurast states no hardware, memory or storage figures for a Mainnet node, and how much relay-chain data a node must follow was not sized.
- The Hyperdrive token bridge's on-chain switch read enabled in one RPC read on 2026-09-29, but no transfer through it was tested, and how many oracles are registered to sign its messages and who runs them was not verified.
- The realized loss from the conversion replay bug was still under review in Acurast's post-mortem; the reward double-claim post-mortem measured at most about 571,875 ACU wrongly paid (its own upper bound), while Acurast's September blog puts the remaining impact at about 71,000 ACU after large recipients burned their surplus, and the two figures were not reconciled here.
- How much of a workload's data and memory is shielded from the phone's owner under Acurast's attestation model, and whether the zero-knowledge runtime described in the docs runs anywhere, was not verified.
- The reading that transaction fees and tips are removed from supply comes from the runtime code (the fee handler passes them to no account) and was not checked against on-chain events.
- Mainnet opened to the public on 20 January 2026, but Acurast's post-mortem records Canary-to-Mainnet conversions from 1 December 2025, so the chain's genesis date was not established.
- Whether other parachains hold ACU through cross-chain messaging channels was not checked.
- The token bridge's runtime configuration also names a Solana vault, but Acurast's token list names no Solana token contract; whether a Solana route is in use was not checked.
- No Acurast light client, atomic swap mechanism or signed-offer trade mechanism was found; absence was not exhaustively verified.
- Acurast publishes cumulative transaction counts but no transactions-per-second figure, so no throughput claim is recorded.
- The Acurast Bot explorer's operator and data methods were not identified, and its pages render only in the browser.
- The audit reports Acurast lists (Monethic, 2025 and 2026) were not reviewed.
- Acurast's blog dates Canary's launch to 7 July 2023, while the docs date the Canary pre-net to 13 September 2023; the difference was not resolved.
Sources
Oldest dated source check: Source checked Sep 29, 2026 Next check due Oct 29, 2026.
- Protocol architecture overview (external site)
- Consensus Layer (external site)
- Execution Layer (external site)
- End-to-End Deployment Execution (external site)
- Instances (Devnet, Canary and Mainnet) (external site)
- Networks (external site)
- Node Setup (external site)
- Governance (external site)
- Acurast Token (ACU): chains and token contracts (external site)
- Tokenomics (external site)
- From Canary To Mainnet: Overview (external site)
- Staking Mainnet vs. Canary (external site)
- Slashing (external site)
- Provide Compute, Earn Rewards (processor FAQ) (external site)
- Trezor firmware coin support data (common/defs/support.json, main branch) (external site)
- Ledger Hardware Wallet (coming soon) (external site)
- Post Mortem 2025-11-04: Acurast Canary chain stalled (external site)
- Post mortem: Acurast Compute, double claiming of staking rewards (external site)
- Post mortem: Acurast Token Conversion, replay of conversion messages (external site)
- Acurast Mainnet & TGE Are Live (external site)
- Acurast Security Protocol Upgrades (external site)
- Thousands of Blockchains: Running Linera Microchains on Acurast's Edge Fleet (external site)
- Staked Compute: How Your Stake Secures and Strengthens the Acurast Network (external site)
- Explore Acurast's Community Tools (external site)
- acurast-substrate releases (external site)
- Acurast Mainnet chain spec (acurast-mainnet-parachain-3396-raw.json, tag acurast-v0.26.5) (external site)
- Mainnet runtime pallet list (runtime/acurast-mainnet/src/lib.rs, tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Mainnet runtime constants: spec version 16, collator limits, session period (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Common runtime constants: token units and six-second block time (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Mainnet collator selection configuration (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Mainnet proxy pallet configuration (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Mainnet Hyperdrive messaging and token bridge configuration (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Runtime transaction fee charger (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Acurast pallet common types: deployment script as an IPFS address (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- Parachains' Protocol (ELVES) (external site)
- Mainnet processor manager configuration, including processor fund recovery (tag acurast-v0.26.7) (external site)
- USDC contract addresses (external site)
- Supported protocols (external site)
- @ledgerhq/cryptoassets 13.56.0 currency list (external site)
- Acurast wallet (external site)
Report an error
Found something wrong or out of date? Reporting is free, and every chain goes through the same process. Published corrections appear in the public log.
Funding disclosure
Funding disclosures appear here when an upkeep arrangement exists, in the form “Upkeep funded by [name]; verdicts unaffected.” The funder ledger has not been published yet. Neutrality & funding